Within the affluent democracy, essay on tolerance, the affluent discussion prevails, and within the established framework, it is tolerant to a large extent. Moreover, in endlessly dragging debates over the media, the stupid opinion is treated with the same respect as the intelligent one, the misinformed may talk as long as the informed, and propaganda rides along with education, essay on tolerance, truth with falsehood. And the direction in which it must be sought, and the institutional and cultural changes which may help to attain the goal are, at least in developed civilization, comprehensible, that is to say, they can be identified and projected, on the basis of experience, by human reason. This explains how the latter religion essay on tolerance amalgamating different belief systems. Such discrimination would also be applied to movements opposing the extension of social legislation to the poor, weak, disabled. All great men were tolerant. Difference, in environment or conditions of life, causes difference in temperament and opinion.
Abstraction
Plants have omnipresent response to abiotic emphasiss doing terrible harm to structural organisation and physiological mechanism of works cell. The capacity of lasting under those inauspicious status makes the works Physcomitrella patens as a theoretical account for functional genomics of adaptative environments. In higher workss, exogenic ABA application and unreal cold acclimatization were found to be the tools of heightening emphasis. But the mechanism essay on tolerance still ill-defined in lower workss like P patens. Analysis of ABA-insensitive lines would be of import tools for designation of cistron look pathway involved in ABA perceptual experience of signal transduction.
Present survey was undertaken to clear up the mechanism underlying physiological procedures taking to the development of freeze, dehydration, salt and osmotic emphasis tolerance in ABA insensitive lines of P. In this survey we used the transgenic D line showing the catalytic sphere of protein phosphatase 2C negatively modulating ABA signaling, and the ABA-insensitive AR7 mutation isolated by ultraviolet mutagenesis and wild type of P. Both mutant and transgenic line essay on tolerance P.
patens demonstrated as a negative regulator of ABA signaling and were sensitive to stop deading, dehydration and osmotic emphasiss. In wild type, ABA enhanced tolerance to all type of abiotic emphasiss. Accumulated sugar and proteins in mutation, transgenic essay on tolerance wild type lines explained their function in stress tolerance under ABA intervention. Changes in cold-acclimated protonema cells explained the influence of stop deading emphasiss in P. Protonema cells of the wild Physcomitrella patens acquired stop deading tolerance in response to cold and abscisic acid intervention.
Effectss of low temperature intervention on stop deading tolerance indicated that the low temperature intervention essay on tolerance seven yearss of wild type workss increased the freeze tolerance significantly but the intervention had small consequence on that of ABA-insensitive lines. In contrast, non-acclimated protonemata from both wild type and ABA-insensitive workss were of less survival rate. These informations were consistent with ABA-induced emphasis tolerance in P. patens, bespeaking that ABA intervention increased stop deading tolerance in wild P, essay on tolerance. patens compared to ABA-insensitive workss. Protein and sugar analyses indicated that cold intervention induces accretion of specific LEA-like proteins and soluble sugars in wild type, whereas the intervention increased merely soluble sugars but non LEA-like proteins in the ABA-insensitive lines.
As the cold acclimatization could non increase stop deading tolerance in ABA insensitive lines, it can be concluded that Physcomitrella patens had an ABA dependent tract of cold induced cistron look. Environmental emphasiss like cold, salt and dehydration have tremendous impact on harvest output and distribution around the universe. They adversely affect harvest productiveness through the ordinance of spacial distribution and familial look of workss. The change of familial look under cold emphasis is chiefly due to the alterations in metabolic reactions, though indirect consequence like osmotic chilling induced suppression of H2O consumption and freeze induced cellular desiccationoxidative and other emphasiss are associated with cold emphasis.
Dehydration and salt cause osmotic emphasis to populating tellurian workss and take to H2O shortage in workss, essay on tolerance, which accordingly affects works growing and development. The response of workss cells to emphasiss besides depends upon the works species and type of initiation, essay on tolerance. Bryophytes are considered as an of import beginning of abiotic stress-tolerant cistrons due to their high grade of version under utmost environments. They are widely distributed from tropical rain forest to dessert and cold zones. Most tropical workss are chilling sensitive and can non even digest exposure to non-freezing low temperature, but some bryophyte species readily digest EsC or lower temperatures.
Essay on tolerance desiccated, bryophytes lose most of H2O retained in the tissues but when watered they can equilibrate quickly with environing H2O potency and to the full hydrated without important harm. However, some members of nonvascular plants are besides of import for their tolerance essay on tolerance other emphasiss like salt emphasis. The moss Physcomitrella patens, a representative of nonvascular plants, has freshly emerged as a stress-tolerant essay on tolerance account for functional genomics attacks.
Its simple organic structure program and the little figure of different cell types makes this works suitable for elucidation of developmental procedures. The sequenced genome of the moss Physcomitrella patens provides a powerful tool for comparative analysis of land works genomes, essay on tolerance. Probe of the molecular mechanisms involved in the abiotic emphasis response of workss has made significant advancement in recent old ages. Recently, Minami et Al. investigated the stop deading tolerance of Physcomitrella protonemata, which was markedly enhanced upon pre-treatment with abscisic acid ABA. Benito and Rodriguez-Navarro foremost analysed essay on tolerance salt tolerance in P. patens and indicated that the workss were able to digest NaCl concentrations up to millimeter when the workss had been easy adapted to increasing salt concentrations, essay on tolerance.
Kroemer et Al, essay on tolerance. hold characterized the stress-responsive look form of two Physcomitrella cistrons homologous to the Arabidopsis RCI2A and RCI2B cistrons, essay on tolerance. The ordinance of these cistrons upon different emphasis interventions indicates that stress-related signaling tracts might hold been altered during the evolutionary development of land workss. Recent probe on functional analysis of ABI1-related protein phosphatise type 2C revealed the evolutionary conserved ordinance of abscisic acid signalling between Arabiodopsis and the moss P. But the physiological informations and information about the molecular events underlying the abiotic emphasis response in Physcomitrella are still limited.
Cold acclimatization is the procedure by which workss enhances stop deading tolerance in response to seasonal alterations from fall to winter, essay on tolerance. Most of the terrestrial higher land workss turning in the temperate zone developing tolerance degree to stop deading in winter by a procedure of seasonal cold acclimatization, essay on tolerance. The procedure of essay on tolerance acclimatization is associated with combination of biochemical and physiological alterations within the works cells Levitt, ; Sakai and Larcher, including the look of Numberss of cistrons, skill of LEA-like proteins, accumulate compatible solutes as soluble essay on tolerance and activation of metabolic enzymes Pearce ; Thomashow ; Xin and Browse ; Seki et Al, essay on tolerance.
During cold acclimatization, additions in degrees of endogenous abscisic acid ABAwhich include the bulk of the response to H2O emphasis, is common among higher workss such as tomato Daie and Campbellmurphy Chen et al. The look of stress-responsive cistrons besides found to be regulated by ABA rendering the sweetening of stop deading tolerance in higher workss Zeevart and Creelman Scientific evidences suggested the being of both ABA independent and independent tracts with cold acclimatization in workss. Probe on Arabidopsis essay on tolerance that the ABA-insensitive mutant abi of can non get stop deading tolerance by ABA intervention though it retains capacity to increase stop deading tolerance by cold acclimatization.
But, small is known how ABA is involved in cold acclimatization in lower workss like nonvascular plants. However, ABA is besides involved in other abiotic emphasis version of P. patens, since exogenously applied ABA increases stop deading tolerance and increased endogenous ABA degrees were detected upon osmotic emphasis intervention. Extensive analyses were made essay on tolerance molecular and cellular responses to emphasiss through the survey of essay on tolerance of assorted sort of proteins and smaller molecules, including sugars, proline, and glycine betaine, essay on tolerance.
We antecedently reported that the protonema cells of the moss Physcomitrella patens get stop deading tolerance when they were treated with 10? M ABA for one twenty-four hours. At the cellular degree, ABA intervention resulted in decrease in sizes of chloroplasts and vacuoles, and besides inspissating of cell wall. These morphological alterations were associated with decrease in the sum of amylum and accretion of low molecular weight soluble sugars. We found that the major soluble sugars accumulated in association with ABA-induced stop deading tolerance are disaccharide sucrose and trisaccharide theanderose.
Though it is suggested that these low-molecular-weight sugars serve chiefly as 1 osmolytes against hydraulic force per unit area across cellular membranes generated by extracellular ice crystals and 2 protectants for cellular membranes and enzymes from irreversible harm caused by stop deading. Detail mechanism of engagement of sugar in stop deading tolerance is yet to be elucidated. Present survey hence, was aimed to clear up mechanisms underlying physiological procedures taking to development of essay on tolerance emphasis tolerance in moss protonema cells. Here we peculiarly emphasized on the geographic expedition of the function of ABA and soluble sugars in the tract of cold acclimated stop deading tolerance utilizing ABA insensitive AR7 mutation and ABA insensitive D transgenic strain, essay on tolerance.
Three different lines D, AR7 and wild type of Physcomitrella patens were used as the works stuffs for this survey. D is a transgenic strain of P. patens, showing catalytic essay on tolerance of protein phosphatase 2C and demoing an ABA-insensitive phenotype. AR7 is a ABA insensitive mutation isolated by Minami et Al. Protonema tissue of Physcomitrella patens were grown on cellophane-overlaid 0, essay on tolerance. The protonema tissue was so transferred into ABA incorporating BCD medium and cultured for 1 twenty-four hours. Freezing tolerance was estimated by equilibrium freeze of protonema tissue, followed by measuring of electrolyte escape by electro-conductivity metre.
Wild type, AR7 and D protonema cells were subjected to intervention with assorted concentrations 0, 0. Protonemata were grown on cellophane-overlaid 0. ABA intervention was carried out by reassigning settlements of protonemata onto fresh agar home bases of BCD medium incorporating 1? M ABA and incubated at 4-c under dim visible radiation for 1 twenty-four hours. After that settlements were so planted on normal BCD medium to find effects of the intervention on settlement growing. Survival rate was measured by staining decease cells of protonema. Fresh weight of one hebdomad old protonemal tissues was measured after sterile remotion of extra H2O. A five g of fresh tissue was homogenized in 2 milliliter of 0. After 1 hebdomads of civilization, settlement countries were digitally measured utilizing LIA for Win32 image analysis.
Moss settlements were grown for merely one twenty-four hours on BCD medium with cellophane supplemented with 1? M ABA, after which the tissues were transferred to sterile filter documents in works tissue civilization petri-dishes. Decelerate drying was performed harmonizing to the method essay on tolerance Tetteroo et Al that was developed for drying of bodily embryos. Drying was perfomed in the dark status. Moss tissue remained at each comparative humidness for 1 twenty-four hours. Prior to rehydration, the dried samples were essay on tolerance in a chamber with wet saturated air for 1 h. Sterile H2O was so added on the pre-humidified samples. Subsequently, the rehydrated samples were transferred to fresh agar home bases and incubated in dim-light for 1 H before they were placed in normal light conditions.
Rate of endurance was noted following 24 hrs dehydration. Non-viable cells appear bluish, whereas vigorous cells do non absorb the bluish colour dye, essay on tolerance. For emphasis experiments, essay on tolerance, protonemata were stained for 1 hour on 0. Protonema cells were weighed and crushed utilizing a howitzer and a stamp for soluble sugar extraction. The supernatant was dried and suspended in H2O. After remotion of non-water-soluble stuff by centrifugation, the supernatants were quantified by the anthron-sulfuric acid assay utilizing glucose as a criterion. For thin-layer chromatography TLCsugar samples extracted in H2O were subjected to ascendant chromatography on a thin-layer silicon oxide gel home base, essay on tolerance.
Proteins were extracted from the protonema cells by the process as described by. SDS-Polyacrylamide gel cataphoresis technique was used for protein analysis. Protonema cells were homogenized and extracted with a solution incorporating 50mM Tris pH 7. After centrifugation at 14, g for 10 min at 4-C, supernatants were used as petroleum fractions. The proteins in the petroleum fractions, adjusted to equal concentrations, were boiled for 10 min, and indissoluble stuffs were removed by centrifugation at 14, g for 10 min at 4-C, essay on tolerance.
divorce cause and effect essay
The moss Physcomitrella patens, a representative of nonvascular plants, has freshly emerged as a stress-tolerant theoretical account for functional genomics attacks. Its simple organic structure program and the little figure of different cell types makes this works suitable for elucidation of developmental procedures. The sequenced genome of the moss Physcomitrella patens provides a powerful tool for comparative analysis of land works genomes. Probe of the molecular mechanisms involved in the abiotic emphasis response of workss has made significant advancement in recent old ages. Recently, Minami et Al.
investigated the stop deading tolerance of Physcomitrella protonemata, which was markedly enhanced upon pre-treatment with abscisic acid ABA. Benito and Rodriguez-Navarro foremost analysed the salt tolerance in P. patens and indicated that the workss were able to digest NaCl concentrations up to millimeter when the workss had been easy adapted to increasing salt concentrations. Kroemer et Al. hold characterized the stress-responsive look form of two Physcomitrella cistrons homologous to the Arabidopsis RCI2A and RCI2B cistrons. The ordinance of these cistrons upon different emphasis interventions indicates that stress-related signaling tracts might hold been altered during the evolutionary development of land workss. Recent probe on functional analysis of ABI1-related protein phosphatise type 2C revealed the evolutionary conserved ordinance of abscisic acid signalling between Arabiodopsis and the moss P.
But the physiological informations and information about the molecular events underlying the abiotic emphasis response in Physcomitrella are still limited. Cold acclimatization is the procedure by which workss enhances stop deading tolerance in response to seasonal alterations from fall to winter. Most of the terrestrial higher land workss turning in the temperate zone developing tolerance degree to stop deading in winter by a procedure of seasonal cold acclimatization. The procedure of cold acclimatization is associated with combination of biochemical and physiological alterations within the works cells Levitt, ; Sakai and Larcher, including the look of Numberss of cistrons, skill of LEA-like proteins, accumulate compatible solutes as soluble sugars and activation of metabolic enzymes Pearce ; Thomashow ; Xin and Browse ; Seki et Al.
During cold acclimatization, additions in degrees of endogenous abscisic acid ABA , which include the bulk of the response to H2O emphasis, is common among higher workss such as tomato Daie and Campbell , murphy Chen et al. The look of stress-responsive cistrons besides found to be regulated by ABA rendering the sweetening of stop deading tolerance in higher workss Zeevart and Creelman Scientific evidences suggested the being of both ABA independent and independent tracts with cold acclimatization in workss. Probe on Arabidopsis thaliana that the ABA-insensitive mutant abi of can non get stop deading tolerance by ABA intervention though it retains capacity to increase stop deading tolerance by cold acclimatization.
But, small is known how ABA is involved in cold acclimatization in lower workss like nonvascular plants. However, ABA is besides involved in other abiotic emphasis version of P. patens, since exogenously applied ABA increases stop deading tolerance and increased endogenous ABA degrees were detected upon osmotic emphasis intervention. Extensive analyses were made on molecular and cellular responses to emphasiss through the survey of accretion of assorted sort of proteins and smaller molecules, including sugars, proline, and glycine betaine. We antecedently reported that the protonema cells of the moss Physcomitrella patens get stop deading tolerance when they were treated with 10?
M ABA for one twenty-four hours. At the cellular degree, ABA intervention resulted in decrease in sizes of chloroplasts and vacuoles, and besides inspissating of cell wall. These morphological alterations were associated with decrease in the sum of amylum and accretion of low molecular weight soluble sugars. We found that the major soluble sugars accumulated in association with ABA-induced stop deading tolerance are disaccharide sucrose and trisaccharide theanderose. Though it is suggested that these low-molecular-weight sugars serve chiefly as 1 osmolytes against hydraulic force per unit area across cellular membranes generated by extracellular ice crystals and 2 protectants for cellular membranes and enzymes from irreversible harm caused by stop deading.
Detail mechanism of engagement of sugar in stop deading tolerance is yet to be elucidated. Present survey hence, was aimed to clear up mechanisms underlying physiological procedures taking to development of abiotic emphasis tolerance in moss protonema cells. Here we peculiarly emphasized on the geographic expedition of the function of ABA and soluble sugars in the tract of cold acclimated stop deading tolerance utilizing ABA insensitive AR7 mutation and ABA insensitive D transgenic strain. Three different lines D, AR7 and wild type of Physcomitrella patens were used as the works stuffs for this survey. D is a transgenic strain of P. patens, showing catalytic sphere of protein phosphatase 2C and demoing an ABA-insensitive phenotype. AR7 is a ABA insensitive mutation isolated by Minami et Al.
Protonema tissue of Physcomitrella patens were grown on cellophane-overlaid 0. The protonema tissue was so transferred into ABA incorporating BCD medium and cultured for 1 twenty-four hours. Freezing tolerance was estimated by equilibrium freeze of protonema tissue, followed by measuring of electrolyte escape by electro-conductivity metre. Wild type, AR7 and D protonema cells were subjected to intervention with assorted concentrations 0, 0. Protonemata were grown on cellophane-overlaid 0. ABA intervention was carried out by reassigning settlements of protonemata onto fresh agar home bases of BCD medium incorporating 1? M ABA and incubated at 4-c under dim visible radiation for 1 twenty-four hours.
After that settlements were so planted on normal BCD medium to find effects of the intervention on settlement growing. Survival rate was measured by staining decease cells of protonema. Fresh weight of one hebdomad old protonemal tissues was measured after sterile remotion of extra H2O. A five g of fresh tissue was homogenized in 2 milliliter of 0. After 1 hebdomads of civilization, settlement countries were digitally measured utilizing LIA for Win32 image analysis. Moss settlements were grown for merely one twenty-four hours on BCD medium with cellophane supplemented with 1? M ABA, after which the tissues were transferred to sterile filter documents in works tissue civilization petri-dishes.
Decelerate drying was performed harmonizing to the method of Tetteroo et Al that was developed for drying of bodily embryos. Drying was perfomed in the dark status. Moss tissue remained at each comparative humidness for 1 twenty-four hours. Prior to rehydration, the dried samples were pre-humidified in a chamber with wet saturated air for 1 h. Sterile H2O was so added on the pre-humidified samples. Subsequently, the rehydrated samples were transferred to fresh agar home bases and incubated in dim-light for 1 H before they were placed in normal light conditions. Rate of endurance was noted following 24 hrs dehydration. Non-viable cells appear bluish, whereas vigorous cells do non absorb the bluish colour dye.
For emphasis experiments, protonemata were stained for 1 hour on 0. Protonema cells were weighed and crushed utilizing a howitzer and a stamp for soluble sugar extraction. The supernatant was dried and suspended in H2O. After remotion of non-water-soluble stuff by centrifugation, the supernatants were quantified by the anthron-sulfuric acid assay utilizing glucose as a criterion. For thin-layer chromatography TLC , sugar samples extracted in H2O were subjected to ascendant chromatography on a thin-layer silicon oxide gel home base. Proteins were extracted from the protonema cells by the process as described by. SDS-Polyacrylamide gel cataphoresis technique was used for protein analysis. Protonema cells were homogenized and extracted with a solution incorporating 50mM Tris pH 7.
After centrifugation at 14, g for 10 min at 4-C, supernatants were used as petroleum fractions. The proteins in the petroleum fractions, adjusted to equal concentrations, were boiled for 10 min, and indissoluble stuffs were removed by centrifugation at 14, g for 10 min at 4-C. These soluble fractions were used as boiling soluble proteins. The boiling soluble proteins matching to 20? g of petroleum proteins were used for gel cataphoresis. RNA extraction and Northern smudge analysis were performed as described by Minami et Al. We characterised the phenotypic look of all three lines AR7, D and WT for ABA sensitiveness. Growth of normal protonema cells is strongly inhibited by 10µM ABA, and by incubation with ABA for several yearss, the cells undergo morphological alterations that later lead to formation of round-shaped cells known as brood cells.
The growing of protonema cells were therefore examined in BCD medium incorporating 10 µM ABA. Protonemal growing of AR7 and D were non inhibited by ABA interventions, though strong suppression of wild type protonema cells was observed at 10µM ABA incubated for five yearss through the formation of round-shaped brood cells Fig. This demonstrates that AR7 and D maps as a negative regulator of ABA signaling in P. Wild type strain of P. patens is of course sensitive to stop deading emphasiss. We, hence, tested if the ABA insensitive mutation AR7 and transgenic line D have altered sensitiveness to stop deading tolerance under ABA intervention. All three lines AR7, D and WT showed high sensitiveness to stop deading at different temperature when their protonema cells had been cultured on medium without ABA.
Measurement of electrolyte escape after freeze-thawing revealed ABA-induced freeze tolerance in wild type of P. patens Fig 2 , as antecedently observed. ABA intervention for one twenty-four hours unusually increased the stop deading tolerance of wild type protonema cells in a dose-dependent mode. Whereas, AR7 and D did non response significantly even at h ABA intervention. The transgenic works D and AR7 mutant significantly lower stop deading tolerance, even at 1µM ABA, compared to the wild type. However, the effects of the ABA application resulted in the same degree of stop deading tolerance as low temperature initiation in AR7 and D Consequence of salt emphasis on growing of P. patens was examined by handling protonema cells with different concentration of NaCl.
ABA induced salt and osmotic emphasis version was monitored in WT, AR7 and D After handling with Mannitol and NaCl, protonema cells were farther transferred to normal BCD and cultured for 5 twenty-four hours to measure the grade of salt and osmotic emphasis tolerance. Hyper-osmotic emphasis intervention by Osmitrol badly inhibited the growing of protonema cells of three lines in ABA free medium Fig 3. Therefore, all three lines showed similar degree of Osmitrol induced osmotic emphasis response, manifested in the impaired growing phenotypes of the workss under emphasis conditions. However, incubation with 1 µM ABA, wild type cells acquired tolerance to hyper-osmotic emphasis even at 1. In contrast, AR7 mutation and D transgene could last merely at really low concentration of Osmitrol 0.
Phenotypic word picture made on three lines of P. patens under different concentration of NaCl showed similar type of response to salt emphasis. Without ABA intervention, three lines were badly damaged by intervention with 0. In contrast, tolerance degrees of AR7 mutation and D transgenic cells were unchanged by one-day incubation on medium incorporating 1 µM ABA. Therefore analyzed their tolerance to osmotic emphasis Fig. Protonemata were cultured on media incorporating assorted concentration of Osmitrol and NaCl, which causes alterations in media osmolality. As the Osmitrol and NaCl concentration increased, the growing of the wild type protonemat was inhibited.
Growth suppression caused by salt-induce osmotic emphasis was more distinguishable in ABA-insensitive lines. Both of these consequences demonstrate that cut down tolerance of AR7 and D protonemata to osmotic emphasis. Untreated wild-type protonema tissues of P. It was therefore clear that WT of P. patens can last in presence of ABA 1µM when they are subjected to a drying procedure. In contrast, ABA insensitive AR7 mutation and D transgene showed high sensitiveness to dehydration. Khandelwal et Al besides observed similar consequence and suggested that both ABA and ABAI are required for P. patens vegetive tissue to last dehydration. We examined the effects of low temperature intervention on stop deading tolerance of the ABA-insensitive mutation and transgenic lines of P. patens protonemata.
These incubation periods had differential effects on stop deading tolerance of the protonema cells Fig. On the other manus, protonemata subjected to low temperature had increased freezing tolerance. The grade of stop deading tolerance of protonemata increased increasingly with increasing continuance of cold acclimatization, and after 10 yearss of cold intervention. Furthermore, staining analysis utilizing Evanss blue raised against the blue cell like decease cell stained by dye, which had been counted as one of alive cell upon cold intervention revealed that the cold-induced increased the endurance after stop deading in WT but non in AR7 and D workss Fig 5d.
Accretion of proteins from cold-acclimated and Non treated protonemata was analyzed by SDS-PAGE. When entire soluble proteins were analyzed, cataphoretic profiles were non significantly changed by cold acclimatization. While LEA like proteins are extremely hydrophilic, entire soluble proteins were boiled for 3 min and analyzed the accretion of boiling soluble proteins Fig. We examined the effects of low-temperature on the profiles of soluble sugar composing in AR7, D and P. It is clear from the historical record that the authentic spokesmen of tolerance had more and other truth in mind than that of propositional logic and academic theory.
John Stuart Mill speaks of the truth which is persecuted in history and which does not triumph over persecution by virtue of its 'inherent power', which in fact has no inherent power 'against the dungeon and the stake'. And he enumerates the 'truths' which were cruelly and successfully liquidated in the dungeons and at the stake: that of Arnold of Brescia, of Fra Dolcino, of Savonarola, of the Albigensians, Waldensians, Lollards, and Hussites. Tolerance is first and foremost for the sake of the heretics--the historical road toward humanitas appears as heresy: target of persecution by the powers that be.
Heresy by itself, however, is no token of truth. The criterion of progress in freedom according to which Mill judges these movements is the Reformation. The evaluation is ex post, and his list includes opposites Savonarola too would have burned Fra Dolcino. Even the ex post evaluation is contestable as to its truth: history corrects the judgment--too late. The correction does not help the victims and does not absolve their executioners. However, the lesson is clear: intolerance has delayed progress and has prolonged the slaughter and torture of innocents for hundreds of years.
Does this clinch the case for indiscriminate, 'pure' tolerance? Are there historical conditions in which such toleration impedes liberation and multiplies the victims who are sacrificed to the status quo? Can the indiscriminate guaranty of political rights and liberties be repressive? Can such tolerance serve to contain qualitative social change? I shall discuss this question only with reference to political movements, attitudes, schools of thought, philosophies which are 'political' in the widest sense--affecting the society as a whole, demonstrably transcending the sphere of privacy.
Moreover, I propose a shift in the focus of the discussion: it will be concerned not only, and not primarily, with tolerance toward radical extremes, minorities, subversives, etc. In this case, the discussion can have as a frame of reference only a democratic society, in which the people, as individuals and as members of political and other organizations, participate in the making, sustaining, and changing policies. In an authoritarian system, the people do not tolerate--they suffer established policies. The underlying assumption is that the established society is free, and that any improvement, even a change in the social structure and social values, would come about in the normal course of events, prepared, defined, and tested in free and equal discussion, on the open marketplace of ideas and goods.
The notion of pluralism and countervailing powers is no substitute for this requirement. One might in theory construct a state in which a multitude of different pressures, interests, and authorities balance each other out and result in a truly general and rational interest. However, such a construction badly fits a society in which powers are and remain unequal and even increase their unequal weight when they run their own course. It fits even worse when the variety of pressures unifies and coagulates into an overwhelming whole, integrating the particular countervailing powers by virtue of an increasing standard of living and an increasing concentration of power.
Then, the laborer, whose real interest conflicts with that of management, the common consumer whose real interest conflicts with that of the producer, the intellectual whose vocation conflicts with that of his employer find themselves submitting to a system against which they are powerless and appear unreasonable. The idea of the available alternatives evaporates into an utterly utopian dimension in which it is at home, for a free society is indeed unrealistically and undefinably different from the existing ones. Under these circumstances, whatever improvement may occur 'in the normal course of events' and without subversion is likely to be an improvement in the direction determined by the particular interests which control the whole.
By the same token, those minorities which strive for a change of the whole itself will, under optimal conditions which rarely prevail, will be left free to deliberate and discuss, to speak and to assemble - and will be left harmless and helpless in the face of the overwhelming majority, which militates against qualitative social change. This majority is firmly grounded in the increasing satisfaction of needs, and technological and -mental co-ordination, which testify to the general helplessness of radical groups in a well-functioning social system. Within the affluent democracy, the affluent discussion prevails, and within the established framework, it is tolerant to a large extent. All points of view can be heard: the Communist and the Fascist, the Left and the Right, the white and the Negro, the crusaders for armament and for disarmament.
Moreover, in endlessly dragging debates over the media, the stupid opinion is treated with the same respect as the intelligent one, the misinformed may talk as long as the informed, and propaganda rides along with education, truth with falsehood. This pure toleration of sense and nonsense is justified by the democratic argument that nobody, neither group nor individual, is in possession of the truth and capable of defining what is right and wrong, good and bad. Therefore, all contesting opinions must be submitted to 'the people' for its deliberation and choice. But I have already suggested that the democratic argument implies a necessary condition, namely, that the people must be capable of deliberating and choosing on the basis of knowledge, that they must have access to authentic information, and that, on this.
basis, their evaluation must be the result of autonomous thought. In the contemporary period, the democratic argument for abstract tolerance tends to be invalidated by the invalidation of the democratic process itself. The liberating force of democracy was the chance it gave to effective dissent, on the individual as well as social scale, its openness to qualitatively different forms of government, of culture, education, work--of the human existence in general. The toleration of free discussion and the equal right of opposites was to define and clarify the different forms of dissent: their direction, content, prospect. But with the concentration of economic and political power and the integration of opposites in a society which uses technology as an instrument of domination, effective dissent is blocked where it could freely emerge; in the formation of opinion, in information and communication, in speech and assembly.
Under the rule of monopolistic media--themselves the mere instruments of economic and political power--a mentality is created for which right and wrong, true and false are predefined wherever they affect the vital interests of the society. This is, prior to all expression and communication, a matter of semantics: the blocking of effective dissent, of the recognition of that which is not of the Establishment which begins in the. language that is publicized and administered. The meaning of words is rigidly stabilized. Rational persuasion, persuasion to the opposite is all but precluded. The avenues of entrance are closed to the meaning of words and ideas other than the established one--established by the publicity of the powers that be, and verified in their practices. Other words can be spoken and heard, other ideas can be expressed, but, at the massive scale of the conservative majority outside such enclaves as the intelligentsia , they are immediately 'evaluated' i.
automatically understood in terms of the public language--a language which determines 'a priori' the direction in which the thought process moves. Thus the process of reflection ends where it started: in the given conditions and relations. Self-validating, the argument. of the discussion repels the contradiction because the antithesis is redefined in terms of the thesis. For example, thesis: we work for peace; antithesis: we prepare for war or even: we wage war ; unification of opposites; preparing for war is working for peace. Peace is redefined as necessarily, in the prevailing situation, including preparation for war or even war and in this Orwellian form, the meaning of the word 'peace' is stabilized. Thus, the basic vocabulary of the Orwellian language operates as a priori categories of understanding: preforming all content.
These conditions invalidate the logic of tolerance which involves the rational development of meaning and precludes the 'closing of meaning. Consequently, persuasion through discussion and the equal presentation of opposites even where it is really, equal easily lose their liberating force as factors of understanding and learning; they are far more likely to strengthen the established thesis and to repel the alternatives. Impartiality to the utmost, equal treatment of competing and conflicting issues is indeed a basic requirement for decision-making in the democratic process--it is an equally basic requirement for defining the limits of tolerance. But in a democracy with totalitarian organization, objectivity may fulfill a very different function, namely, to foster a mental attitude which tends to obliterate the difference between true and false, information and indoctrination, right and wrong.
In fact, the decision between opposed opinions has been made before the presentation and discussion get under way--made, not by a conspiracy or a sponsor or a publisher, not by any dictatorship, but rather by the 'normal course of events', which is the course of administered events, and by the mentality shaped in this course. Here, too, it is the whole which determines the truth. Then the decision asserts itself, without any open violation of objectivity, in such things as the make-up of a newspaper with the breaking up of vital information into bits interspersed between extraneous material, irrelevant items, relegating of some radically negative news to an obscure place , in the juxtaposition of gorgeous ads with unmitigated horrors, in the introduction and interruption of the broadcasting of facts by overwhelming commercials.
The result is a neutralization of opposites, a neutralization, however, which takes place on the firm grounds of the structural limitation of tolerance and within a preformed mentality. When a magazine prints side by side a negative and a positive report on the FBI, it fulfills honestly the requirements of objectivity: however, the chances are that the positive wins because the image of the institution is deeply engraved in the mind of the people. Or, if a newscaster reports the torture and murder of civil rights workers in the same unemotional tone he uses to describe the stockmarket or the weather, or with the same great emotion with which he says his commercials, then such objectivity is spurious--more, it offends against humanity and truth by being calm where one should be enraged, by refraining from accusation where accusation is in the facts themselves.
The tolerance expressed in such impartiality serves to minimize or even absolve prevailing intolerance and suppression. If objectivity has anything to do with truth, and if truth is more than a matter of logic and science, then this kind of objectivity is false, and this kind of tolerance inhuman. And if it is necessary to break the established universe of meaning and the practice enclosed in this universe in order to enable man to find out what is true and false, this deceptive impartiality would have to be abandoned. The people exposed to this impartiality are no tabulae rasae, they are indoctrinated by the conditions under which they live and think and which they do not transcend.
To enable them to become autonomous, to find by themselves what is true and what is false for man in the existing society, they would have to be freed from the prevailing indoctrination which is no longer recognized as indoctrination. But this means that the trend would have to be reversed: they would have to get information slanted in the opposite direction. For the facts are never given immediately and never accessible immediately; they are established, 'mediated' by those who made them; the truth, 'the whole truth' surpasses these facts and requires the rupture with their appearance.
This rupture--prerequisite and token of all freedom of thought and of speech--cannot be accomplished within the established framework of abstract tolerance and spurious objectivity because these are precisely the factors which precondition the mind against the rupture. The factual barriers which totalitarian democracy erects against the efficacy of qualitative dissent are weak and pleasant enough compared with the practices of a dictatorship which claims to educate the people in the truth. With all its limitations and distortions, democratic tolerance is under all circumstances more humane than an institutionalized intolerance which sacrifices the rights and liberties of the living generations for the sake of future generations.
The question is whether this is the only alternative. I shall presently try to suggest the direction in which an answer may be sought In any case, the contrast is not between democracy in the abstract and dictatorship in the abstract. Democracy is a form of government which fits very different types of society this holds true even for a democracy with universal suffrage and equality before the law , and the human costs of a democracy are always and everywhere those exacted by the society whose government it is. Their range extends all the way from normal exploitation, poverty, and insecurity to the victims of wars, police actions, military aid, etc.
These considerations can never justify the exacting of different sacrifices and different victims on behalf of a future better society, but they do allow weighing the costs involved in the perpetuation of an existing society against the risk of promoting alternatives which offer a reasonable chance of pacification and liberation. Surely, no government can be expected to foster its own subversion, but in a democracy such a right is vested in the people i. in the majority of the people. This means that the ways should not be blocked on which a subversive majority could develop, and if they are blocked by organized repression and indoctrination, their reopening may require apparently undemocratic means.
They would include the withdrawal of toleration of speech and assembly from groups and movements which promote aggressive policies, armament, chauvinism, discrimination on the grounds of race and religion, or which oppose the extension of public services, social security, medical care, etc. Moreover, the restoration of freedom of thought may necessitate new and rigid restrictions on teachings and practices in the educational institutions which, by their very methods and concepts, serve to enclose the mind within the established universe of discourse and behavior--thereby precluding a priori a rational evaluation of the alternatives.
And to the degree to which freedom of thought involves the struggle against inhumanity, restoration of such freedom would also imply intolerance toward scientific research in the interest of deadly 'deterrents', of abnormal human endurance under inhuman conditions, etc. I shall presently discuss the question as to who is to decide on the distinction between liberating and repressive, human and inhuman teachings and practices; I have already suggested that this distinction is not a matter of value-preference but of rational criteria. While the reversal of the trend in the educational enterprise at least could conceivably be enforced by the students and teachers themselves, and thus be self-imposed, the systematic withdrawal of tolerance toward regressive and repressive opinions and movements could only be envisaged as results of large-scale pressure which would amount to an upheaval.
In other words, it would presuppose that which is still to be accomplished: the reversal of the trend. However, resistance at particular occasions, boycott, non-participation at the local and small-group level may perhaps prepare the ground The subversive character of the restoration of freedom appears most clearly in that dimension of society where false tolerance and free enterprise do perhaps the most serious and lasting damage, namely in business and publicity. Against the emphatic insistence on the part of spokesmen for labor, I maintain that practices such as planned obsolescence, collusion between union leadership and management, slanted publicity are not simply imposed from above on a powerless rank and file, but are tolerated by them and the consumer at large.
However, it would be ridiculous to speak of a possible withdrawal of tolerance with respect to these practices and to the ideologies promoted by them. For they pertain to the basis on which the repressive affluent society rests and reproduces itself and its vital defenses - their removal would be that total revolution which this society so effectively repels. To discuss tolerance in such a society means to reexamine the issue of violence and the traditional distinction between violent and non-violent action. The discussion should not, from the beginning, be clouded by ideologies which serve the perpetuation of violence. Even in the advanced centers of civilization, violence actually prevails: it is practiced by the police, in the prisons and mental institutions, in the fight against racial minorities; it is carried, by the defenders of metropolitan freedom, into the backward countries.
This violence indeed breeds violence. But to refrain from violence in the face of vastly superior violence is one thing, to renounce a priori violence against violence, on ethical or psychological grounds because it may antagonize sympathizers is another. Non-violence is normally not only preached to but exacted from the weak--it is a necessity rather than a virtue, and normally it does not seriously harm the case of the strong. Is the case of India an exception? There, passive resistance was carried through on a massive scale, which disrupted, or threatened to disrupt, the economic life of the country. Quantity turns into quality: on such a scale, passive resistance is no longer passive - it ceases to be non-violent.
The same holds true for the General Strike. Robespierre's distinction between the terror of liberty and the terror of despotism, and his moral glorification of the former belongs to the most convincingly condemned aberrations, even if the white terror was more bloody than the red terror. The comparative evaluation in terms of the number of victims is the quantifying approach which reveals the man-made horror throughout history that made violence a necessity. In terms of historical function, there is a difference between revolutionary and reactionary violence, between violence practiced by the oppressed and by the oppressors.
In terms of ethics, both forms of violence are inhuman and evil--but since when is history made in accordance with ethical standards? To start applying them at the point where the oppressed rebel against the oppressors, the have-nots against the haves is serving the cause of actual violence by weakening the protest against it. Comprenez enfin ceci: si la violence a commencé ce soir, si l'exploitation ni l'oppression n'ont jamais existé sur terre, peut-être la non-violence affichée peut apaiser la querelle. Mais si le régime tout entier et jusqu'à vos non-violentes pensées sont conditionnées par une oppression millénaire, votre passivité ne sert qu'à vous ranger du côté des oppresseurs. But if the whole governmental system and your non-violent thoughts are conditioned by a thousand-year-old oppression, your passivity only serves to place you on the side of the oppressors.
The very notion of false tolerance, and the distinction between right and wrong limitations on tolerance, between progressive and regressive indoctrination, revolutionary and reactionary violence demands the statement of criteria for its validity. These standards must be prior to whatever constitutional and legal criteria are set up and applied in an existing society such as 'clear and present danger', and other established definitions of civil rights and liberties , for such definitions themselves presuppose standards of freedom and repression as applicable or not applicable in the respective society: they are specifications of more general concepts.
By whom, and according to what standards, can the political distinction between true and false, progressive and regressive for in this sphere, these pairs are equivalent be made and its validity be justified? At the outset, I propose that the question cannot be answered in terms of the alternative between democracy and dictatorship, according to which, in the latter, one individual or group, without any effective control from below, arrogate to themselves the decision. Historically, even in the most democratic democracies, the vital and final decisions affecting the society as a whole have been made, constitutionally or in fact, by one or several groups without effective control by the people themselves. The ironical question: who educates the educators i.
the political leaders also applies to democracy. The only authentic alternative and negation of dictatorship with respect to this question would be a society in which 'the people' have become autonomous individuals, freed from the repressive requirements of a struggle for existence in the interest of domination, and as such human beings choosing their government and determining their life. Such a society does not yet exist anywhere. In the meantime, the question must be treated in abstracto --abstraction, not from the historical possibilities, but from the realities of the prevailing societies. I suggested that the distinction between true and false tolerance, between progress and regression can be made rationally on empirical grounds.
The real possibilities of human freedom are relative to the attained stage of civilization. They depend on the material and intellectual resources available at the respective stage, and they are quantifiable and calculable to a high degree. So are, at the stage of advanced industrial society, the most rational ways of using these resources and distributing the social product with priority on the satisfaction of vital needs and with a minimum of toil and injustice. In other words, it is possible to define the direction in which prevailing institutions, policies, opinions would have to be changed in order to improve the chance of a peace which is not identical with cold war and a little hot war, and a satisfaction of needs which does not feed on poverty, oppression, and exploitation.
Consequently, it is also possible to identify policies, opinions, movements which would promote this chance, and those which would do the opposite. Suppression of the regressive ones is a prerequisite for the strengthening of the progressive ones. The question, who is qualified to make all these distinctions, definitions, identifications for the society as a whole, has now one logical answer, namely, everyone 'in the maturity of his faculties' as a human being, everyone who has learned to think rationally and autonomously.
The answer to Plato's educational dictatorship is the democratic educational dictatorship of free men. John Stuart Mill's conception of the res publica is not the opposite of Plato's: the liberal too demands the authority of Reason not only as an intellectual but also as a political power. In Plato, rationality is confined to the small number of philosopher-kings; in Mill, every rational human being participates in the discussion and decision--but only as a rational being. Where society has entered the phase of total administration and indoctrination, this would be a small number indeed, and not necessarily that of the elected representatives of the people.
The problem is not that of an educational dictatorship, but that of breaking the tyranny of public opinion and its makers in the closed society. However, granted the empirical rationality of the distinction between progress and regression, and granted that it may be applicable to tolerance, and may justify strongly discriminatory tolerance on political grounds cancellation of the liberal creed of free and equal discussion , another impossible consequence would follow. I said that, by virtue of its inner logic, withdrawal of tolerance from regressive movements, and discriminatory tolerance in favor of progressive tendencies would be tantamount to the 'official' promotion of subversion.
The historical calculus of progress which is actually the calculus of the prospective reduction of cruelty, misery, suppression seems to involve the calculated choice between two forms of political violence: that on the part of the legally constituted powers by their legitimate action, or by their tacit consent, or by their inability to prevent violence , and that on the part of potentially subversive movements. Moreover, with respect to the latter, a policy of unequal treatment would protect radicalism on the Left against that on the Right. Can the historical calculus be reasonably extended to the justification of one form of violence as against another? Or better since 'justification' carries a moral connotation , is there historical evidence to the effect that the social origin and impetus of violence from among the ruled or the ruling classes, the have or the have-nots, the Left or the Right is in a demonstratable relation to progress as defined above?
With all the qualifications of a hypothesis based on an 'open' historical record, it seems that the violence emanating from the rebellion of the oppressed classes broke the historical continuum of injustice, cruelty, and silence for a brief moment, brief but explosive enough to achieve an increase in the scope of freedom and justice, and a better and more equitable distribution of misery and oppression in a new social system--in one word: progress in civilization. The English civil wars, the French Revolution, the Chinese and the Cuban Revolutions may illustrate the hypothesis. In contrast, the one historical change from one social system to another, marking the beginning of a new period in civilization, which was not sparked and driven by an effective movement 'from below', namely, the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West, brought about a long period of regression for long centuries, until a new, higher period of civilization was painfully born in the violence of the heretic revolts of the thirteenth century and in the peasant and laborer revolts of the fourteenth century.
With respect to historical violence emanating from among ruling classes, no such relation to progress seems to obtain. The long series of dynastic and imperialist wars, the liquidation of Spartacus in Germany in , Fascism and Nazism did not break but rather tightened and streamlined the continuum of suppression. I said emanating 'from among ruling classes': to be sure, there is hardly any organized violence from above that does not mobilize and activate mass support from below; the decisive question is, on behalf of and in the interest of which groups and institutions is such violence released?
And the answer is not necessarily ex post: in the historical examples just mentioned, it could be and was anticipated whether the movement would serve the revamping of the old order or the emergence of the new. Liberating tolerance, then, would mean intolerance against movements from the Right and toleration of movements from the Left. As to the scope of this tolerance and intolerance it would extend to the stage of action as well as of discussion and propaganda, of deed as well as of word. The traditional criterion of clear and present danger seems no longer adequate to a stage where the whole society is in the situation of the theater audience when somebody cries: 'fire'.
It is a situation in which the total catastrophe could be triggered off any moment, not only by a technical error, but also by a rational miscalculation of risks, or by a rash speech of one of the leaders. In past and different circumstances, the speeches of the Fascist and Nazi leaders were the immediate prologue to the massacre. The distance between the propaganda and the action, between the organization and its release on the people had become too short. But the spreading of the word could have been stopped before it was too late: if democratic tolerance had been withdrawn when the future leaders started their campaign, mankind would have had a chance of avoiding Auschwitz and a World War.
The whole post-fascist period is one of clear and present danger. Consequently, true pacification requires the withdrawal of tolerance before the deed, at the stage of communication in word, print, and picture. Such extreme suspension of the right of free speech and free assembly is indeed justified only if the whole of society is in extreme danger. I maintain that our society is in such an emergency situation, and that it has become the normal state of affairs. Different opinions and 'philosophies' can no longer compete peacefully for adherence and persuasion on rational grounds: the 'marketplace of ideas' is organized and delimited by those who determine the national and the individual interest. In this society, for which the ideologists have proclaimed the 'end of ideology', the false consciousness has become the general consciousness--from the government down to its last objects.
The small and powerless minorities which struggle against the false consciousness and its beneficiaries must be helped: their continued existence is more important than the preservation of abused rights and liberties which grant constitutional powers to those who oppress these minorities. It should be evident by now that the exercise of civil rights by those who don't have them presupposes the withdrawal of civil rights from those who prevent their exercise, and that liberation of the Damned of the Earth presupposes suppression not only of their old but also of their new masters.
The conditions under which tolerance can again become a liberating and humanizing force have still to be created. When tolerance mainly serves the protection and preservation of a repressive society, when it serves to neutralize opposition and to render men immune against other and better forms of life, then tolerance has been perverted. And when this perversion starts in the mind of the individual, in his consciousness, his needs, when heteronomous interests occupy him before he can experience his servitude, then the efforts to counteract his dehumanization must begin at the place of entrance, there where the false consciousness takes form or rather: is systematically formed --it must begin with stopping the words and images which feed this consciousness.
To be sure, this is censorship, even precensorship, but openly directed against the more or less hidden censorship that permeates the free media. Where the false consciousness has become prevalent in national and popular behavior, it translates itself almost immediately into practice: the safe distance between ideology and reality, repressive thought and repressive action, between the word of destruction and the deed of destruction is dangerously shortened. Thus, the break through the false consciousness may provide the Archimedean point for a larger emancipation--at an infinitesimally small spot, to be sure, but it is on the enlargement of such small spots that the chance of change depends.
The forces of emancipation cannot be identified with any social class which, by virtue of its material condition, is free from false consciousness. Today, they are hopelessly dispersed throughout the society, and the fighting minorities and isolated groups are often in opposition to their own leadership. In the society at large, the mental space for denial and reflection must first be recreated. Repulsed by the concreteness of the administered society, the effort of emancipation becomes 'abstract'; it is reduced to facilitating the recognition of what is going on, to freeing language from the tyranny of the Orwellian syntax and logic, to developing the concepts that comprehend reality.
More than ever, the proposition holds true that progress in freedom demands progress in the consciousness of freedom. Where the mind has been made into a subject-object of politics and policies, intellectual autonomy, the realm of 'pure' thought has become a matter of political education or rather: counter-education. This means that previously neutral, value-free, formal aspects of learning and teaching now become, on their own grounds and in their own right, political: learning to know the facts, the whole truth, and to comprehend it is radical criticism throughout, intellectual subversion.
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